Financial Management of Construction Accounting

Financial Management of Construction Accounting Questions: You are advising a client who is highly respected in the industry as visionary and entrepreneurial.   She is planning her next project, a mixed-use development (e.g. some residential units and two or three larger commercial buildings).   This is to be just outside a large city near you, where infrastructure/transport links are established and ready for the growth. She intends the commercial element to be attractive to large international businesses, perhaps as global or regional headquarters.   The local authorities are supportive of the development on the basis that your client has agreed to work with them to also develop a new hospital as part of the project. Write a letter of advice to the client outlining some options for funding the project, explaining why she should (or shouldnt) consider them as preferable.  Ã‚   If appropriate, you may suggest a combination of approaches. To: Subject: Project: I appreciate the opportunity to advise you regarding the available option for funding your project. I look forward to assisting you with this project and achieving your project objectives. I would like to draw your attention to the key financing options for the proposed project. It is important to remember that financing techniques/funding option constantly changed based on, for example, trends to equity participation by financiers as inflation of values occur, and also renewed interest in mortgages as property values fall. Therefore it is important to remember that a number of key decisions have to be made by those involved in arranging funding for this project. The Interest rates are likely to be lower on corporate borrowing than on project-based funding, this is mainly due to the broader basis of the security available in this option. Borrowing can also be in the form of an overdraft, loan or mortgage on the other hand, or by the issue of securities, such as a debenture or loan stock. These stocks or bonds can be tradable on the stock market. They normally tend to have a fixed rate of interest and fixed term of maturity which can at times be beneficial if the rates are to rise in the future. Banks may offer funding that are fixed or floating rates of interest for a specified period of time. The following facts are based on your written correspondence to me dated 12th June 2016. It is worth considering the answers to the questions below. What is to be the ratio of debt to equity in funding the project? Is the finance to be project based or is it to be corporate finance? What are the arrangements for refinancing the project? Will the debt be funded by traded securities or will it be a loan? What is the term of the loan or stock? What will be the security for loan stock or loan? Will a loan be fixed or floating rate? What will be the term of the loan? Other than that you have opportunity to deploy a consortium with a financial intuition.   These are named as joint ventures andsuch joint ventures arises when two or more parties act jointly to develop this mixed used development project. In these arrangements the participating institution will normally become the ultimate owner of the property. It is also worth noting here that joint ventures normally take the form of partnerships or joint venture (JV) companies. Highlighted below are some of the advantages of such JVs; Secure adequate finance, particularly equity; Can be   acquired expertise; Can be reduced risk of development; To enjoy off balance sheet financing, thereby reducing record debt; Meet the demands of foreign investors; I hope my advice has been beneficial to you in making a decision for funding your next project. I look forward to working with you on this project. Please do not hesitate to contact me anytime if you have any questions or require further advice. I look forward to hearing from you. Kind Regards, References Steven J. Peterson (2012). Construction accounting and financial management. 2nd ed. -: Pearson Education Inc. Danny Myers (2008). Construction Economics a new approach. 2nd ed. -: Taylor and Francis.

Importance of good leadership for a business Essay

Leadership is the process by which an individual influences, motivates and controls the behaviour of others towards a specific set of objectives. Leadership is the composite of abilities and characteristics of an individual leader of the environment in which he operates and of the relationship developed between the leader and the led. It is very important to have good leadership for a business to succeed as employees will only follow a good leader and respond positively towards their direction. A good leader will have ability to obtain the highest quality from subordinates that they have the capacity to render. True leadership is a positive force, based on cooperation and mutual trust. A poor leader will often fail to win over staff and have problems communicating with workers. Leadership style is the way a manager takes decisions and deals with the staff. An effective leadership style is one that best compliments the organizational environment, the task to be accomplished and the pe rsonal characteristics of the people involved. There are several types of leadership styles, which are autocratic, democratic, paternalistic and laissez-faire. Body: Explanation on Autocratic style, Democratic Style, Laissez-faire and paternalistic style. The autocratic Leaders is authoritarian and assume respect for all aspect of operation. Communication is one-way with little as no scope of feedback. With autocratic style, we can identify the dictators who demand total compliances from the work-force. He demotivate staff and create frustration and fears. The work group depend on the leader and will be unable to act independently. However, the autocratic style seems efficient and essential in some situation such as police force. There is clearly chain of command with no ambiguity and so autocratic leadership produces quick decision. The democratic leader seeks the opinion of subordinates before taking final decision. However, they retain ultimate responsibilities for decision making. It is especially appropriate where experience workers need to be fully involve in their work. Participation of subordinate’s results in improve decision making, higher moral and more motivated. But consultation is time consuming and may delay acti vities. There is always the danger of losing management control and attempt to evade responsibilities. Under  Laissez-faire style leadership, group members have total freedom. The leader set down all objectives and the subordinates have clear parameters within which they should work. Once objectives have been set, subordinates are left alone to achieve objectives. This style of leadership works fine when subordinates are willing and able to accept responsibility. Under such style of management, success depend on the competence and integrity of subordinates. But workers are motivated to work. A paternalistic management style is a form of management whereby managers pay more attention to the social aspects of their employees; they are concerned with keeping them happy and motivated, and act as a sort of father figure to the employees. In such a management style, decisions are made with the best interests of the workers at heart. Conclusion: Importance of leadership Leadership is therefore crucial in motivating and inspiring the workforce so that they perform the assign task willingly and in an efficient and effective manner. Thus leadership is concern of influencing others to achieve aims and objectives. Management and leadership skills are needed in every industry and every walk of life. It is essential therefore for new managers to be provided with opportunities to learn how to manage and lead people.

Hindu Religion

HINDU RELIGION Dennis E. Leber Axia College RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD (AXIA) HUM/130 NAOMI DOUMBIA AUG 14, 2007 The Hindu religion The Hindu religion is strongly dependent on the Hindu philosophy and in addition, has inculcated a lot of rituals and practices. The Hindu religion has 333 million gods; this is because the Hindu philosophy believes that every human being is God himself. This acceptance of the multiplicity of the Supreme Being in many forms is the hallmark of the Hindu religion. The Hindu religion is also very assimilative and has accepted many faiths into it. The Hindu religion also allows religious freedom and does not enforce the edicts of the religion on anyone. In fact, Hinduism teaches that a person, in order to attain liberation from the worldly bondage, must select the religion that he is comfortable in. Hence, it accepts the existence of all other religions as a means to realize God. The Hindu religion like other religions also believes in the battle between the good and the evil although at a lower level of existence. The religion preaches that man must advance himself through successive levels of knowledge in his quest for the final truth. Hence, the concept of the Devas, or the good deities and the Asuras, the demoniac characters are very important in the Hindu traditions. Many folklores revolve around the battles between the Devas and the Asuras. The important Godheads in the Hindu tradition are Brahma, Vishnu and Siva who correspond with the three ‘Gunas' or qualities of Satva (pureness), Rajas(action), and Tamas(darkness and inactivity). Man is a mixture of the three gunas and the inherent nature of a person will depend on the predominance of the three gunas in him. The Hindu Social Life The Hindu social life is caste based, which was originally devised for the division of labor. Hence the Hindu society has the Brahmins, the highest class who performs rituals and is supposed to be the most educated in terms of religion. Then comes the Kshatriyas who are the warrior and ruling class. Following them in importance comes the Vaishyas, who are the business class. Last comes the Shudras who serve the upper class. People who do not come in these four classes were previously classified as the untouchables who had to do menial jobs in the society and were looked down upon. Women were given important position in the family even though her importance in public affairs was greatly curtailed during the later years of Hindu history The Hindu way of life has many beliefs that were perhaps a means that offered social balance in the society. For example, the norm of sacrifice and the mandatory rules on feeding others helped to provide food for the needy. Similarly, the social practices were seen as the physical manifestations of the philosophical edicts that Hinduism preached. For example the practice of sacrifice to the fire is a physical manifestation of the philosophic ritual of giving up everything for the sake of understanding the truth. Similarly, the belief that the confluence of the three rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswathi is holy, is due to the Tantric belief that the meeting point of the three nerve centers in the body awakens the Kundalini, which is the seat of power in the human body. The desire for liberation from earthly existence Dharma is the duty that you have to fulfill in life through your placement. Karma states that you will reap what you sow. And the desire for liberation from earthly existence is achieved through the combination of the two aforementioned methods. Life & death has a cycle. The cycle is wrought with earthly pleasures & pain. Your intention is to be free from materialistic desires because they are temporary. Only the soul is eternal. So by meditating, fulfilling your duties, and by eventually ridding yourself of your karma; you are free to exist as soul and be one with the universe as opposed to continuing the cycle of birth & death. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Hindu drawn from Aug, 2007 Origin of Hinduism, About. com drawn from Aug 2007

The Intergenerational Observation Scale - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 18 Words: 5254 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Sociology Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Abstract Innovative intergenerational programs continue to grow in number and scope. The development of standardized evaluation instruments, however, lags behind, leaving many researchers and practitioners without tools to effectively assess their programs. Evaluation data often focus on outcomes without attention to the nature of the interactions between generations. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Intergenerational Observation Scale" essay for you Create order Understanding the process of intergenerational contact is central to understanding its outcomes. We developed the Intergenerational Observation Scale to assess the social interactions and affect of young and old participants during intergenerational activities. Our 3-step observer training process demonstrated good scale reliability. We present the process of developing the scale, achieving observer reliability, and next steps to continue exploring the scales utility across intergenerational populations and settings. KEY WORDS: evaluation, instrument development, intergenerational, programming Development of a standardized tool for intergenerational programming: The Intergenerational Observation Scale Providing opportunities for meaningful engagement to persons with dementia challenges family and professional caregivers alike. While some practitioners and researchers seek innovative means to support client well-being (e.g., Allen-Burge, Burgio, Bourgeois, Sims, Nunnikhoven, 2001; Orsulic-Jeras, Judge, Camp, 2000), many dementia care programs are characterized by extreme levels of inactivity (Ice, 2002), which may result from infantilization (Salari Rich, 2001) and can lead to agitation and depression and detract from well-being (Teri et al., 2003; Voelkl, 1986). Kitwood and Bredin (1992) emphasized caregivers responsibility for supporting the personhood of individuals with diminished capacity to do so for themselves. Personhood, or the dignity and respect owed to each individual, encompasses an individuals experiences, preferences and values. For many people, their social history involves significant time spent interacting with and c aring for children. Recently, care professionals have turned to intergenerational programming (IGP) as one therapeutic method to support personhood and well-being of persons with dementia (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Jarrott Bruno, 2001). Though contact between young and old generations remains an integral part of most families (Eggebeen Davey, 1998), non-familial IGP remains a relatively new treatment milieu in elder care. IGP as a whole varies widely, depending on the populations involved, program objectives, and available resources. Interventions targeting children at risk for drug use (Taylor, LoSciuto, Fox, Hilbert, Sonkowsky, 1999), older adults needing employment (Larkin Newman, 2001), and foster care families needing community support (Eheart Hopping, 2001) have utilized intergenerational strategies to achieve program goals. Programs have employed IGP to promote positive affect and engagement of older adults (Xaverius Matthews, 2003), improved attitudes about aging among children (Middlecamp Gross, 2002), and greater sense of community among staff (Jarrott, Morris, Kemp, Stremmel, 2004). Despite the significant cognitive impairment of many elder care clients, practitioners have found elders experiences interacting with and caring for children so ingrained that they remain able to interact appropriately and positively with children until late in the progress of a dementing illness (Camp et al., 1997). The means of assessing IGP vary as much as the programs themselves. Researchers have utilized interviews (Jarrott Bruno, 2007), observational scales (Marx, Pannell, Papura-Gill, Cohen-Mansfield, 2004; Xaverius Matthews, 2003), attitudinal surveys (Jantz, Seefeldt, Galper, Serlock, 1977; Kocarnik Ponzetti, 1986), drawings (Lichtenstein, et al., 2001), and cognitive assessments (Newman, Karip, Faux, 1995) to evaluate the impact of IGP on one or more groups of participants. While the range of scales utilized is not inherently problema tic, the current state of intergenerational research tools requires significant improvement for several reasons. First, scales are often created for a single study without any report of psychometric properties (Kuehne, 2004). Consequently, researchers reinvent the wheel rather than use valid, reliable scales. Second, most scales assess the experiences of a single generation (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Underwood Dorfman, 2006) although IGP should, by definition (Newman Smith, 1999), provide mutual benefit for young and old participants. Third, the developmental and disease characteristics of a large portion of IGP participants, pre-school age children and frail elders (e.g., Epstein Boisvert, 2006; Middlecamp Gross, 2002; Salari, 2002), limit the opportunity for valid self-report measures. Consequently, researchers often rely on proxy report and direct observation to tap participants experiences with IGP. A critical limitation of much IGP research lies in the black box that conceals the process of bringing young and old together. That is, assessments targeting the impact of IGP often neglect what actually transpired during the IGP. Useful process data will vary from project to project; it might detail the level of activity, the type of interpersonal interactions, the physical environment, facilitators behaviors, or the activitys age appropriateness. For example, Xaverius and Matthews (2003) assessed the impact of IGP involving fourth graders and senior center participants who met for six intergenerational activities. The authors described the theme and setting of activities where elderly participants engagement was coded. Data were not gathered regarding the nature of the activities or what happened when participants were engaged in the intergenerational activity (i.e., if they engaged with the activity materials, with an age peer, or with an intergenerational partner). In contrast, Taylor and colleagues (1999) reported on a senior mentoring pro gram targeting attitudes towards aging, drug use, and civic engagement of participating at-risk youth. The treatment group as a whole demonstrated improved attitudes towards school, civic engagement, aging, and resisting drug use compared to a control group. The authors also tapped into important process data by rating seniors intensity of involvement as a mentor. The researchers found a greater degree of attitudinal improvement among children whose senior mentors were more intensely involved with their student partners. Such studies exemplify the importance of capturing process as well as outcome data. The variety of populations and settings that avail themselves of IGP supports the study of multiple paths leading to positive outcomes. Most would agree that a one-size-fits-all model of IGP is impossible and inappropriate; however, identification of practices and processes that optimize outcomes improves the overall quality of IGP and enhances understanding of how IGP uniquel y meets individuals needs across the lifecourse. In turn, greater understanding of the processes by which positive IGP outcomes are achieved informs development of theory pertaining to intergenerational relationships. For example, while the contact theory (Allport, 1954) provides necessary conditions for achieving positive intergroup contact, Allport did not describe the processes by which these outcomes would be achieved (Pettigrew, 1998). The limitations of IGP and related research stem from the relative infancy of IGP research. Researchers have been studying IGP for only the last 30 years (e.g., Jantz, et al., 1977), yet they are trying to raise the field to match those of child and adult development. Practitioners are anxious to know how IGP affects the physical, cognitive, and mental health of participants, yet the more basic question about whether and how children and elders interact with each other during proscribed IGP remains largely unanswered. Before we can reliabl y draw conclusions about the effects of IGP on children and elderly participants, we must determine the nature of their time spent together. Kuehnes (2003) state of our art report on intergenerational research implored researchers to tap the experiences of young and old participants and to develop and disseminate standardized measures relevant to IGP. By addressing these points, researchers can better inform practitioners efforts and build a cohesive body of research. The scale described in the current paper addresses each of these recommendations. We sought to address the challenge of measuring the experiences of young and old IGP participants, focusing on frail elders and pre-school age children because they constitute a large portion of participants involved in IGP (Goyer Zuses, 1998). We conducted a three-phase study to develop an observational scale tapping the social behavior and affect of both young and old IGP participants. We turned to the child development literatu re, with its long history of observational research, for inspiration. Partens (1933) categories of childrens play behaviors appealed to us; they encompassed categories reflecting a continuum of social behaviors ranging from non-engagement to cooperative engagement. Rubin (2001) developed the Play Observation Scale, drawing on Partens work and childrens cognitive development research. The broad social behaviors of unoccupied, watching, solitary, parallel, and cooperative captured by the Play Observation Scale reflect behaviors of interest to practitioners working to support meaningful engagement among elders and children. For example, a code for unoccupied behavior is salient given the high rates of inactivity found at elder care programs (Ice, 2002) and the goal of utilizing intergenerational strategies to promote positive social engagement. Furthermore, our experiences with IGP (e.g., Gigliotti, Morris, Smock, Jarrott, Graham, 2005; Jarrott Bruno, 2003; Jarrott Bruno, 200 7; Jarrott, Gigliotti, Smock, 2006; Jarrott, Gladwell, Gigliotti, Papero 2004; Jarrott et al., 2004; Weintraub Killian, 2007) highlighted interaction as the central mechanism for achieving mutual benefit during IGP. Thus, a code for solitary behavior is relevant as it reflects engagement in a presented activity without social interaction. The first author used the original Play Observation Scale to observe elders during structured IGP (Gladwell Jarrott, 2003), determining that older adults engagement was greater during IGP than non-IGP. However, Gladwell and Jarrott found the scale cumbersome as they gathered salient data as well as information of little contemporary significance to IGP. Furthermore, they violated some of the scales specifications by utilizing the Play Observation Scale in a structured activity setting. We made several adaptations to Rubins Play Observation Scale for use with structured IGP (see Table 1 for descriptions of the scale categories).   First , Rubins social behavior categories included sub-categories indicative of cognitive development; however, given our emphasis on interactions irrespective of developmental abilities, we eliminated cognitive behaviors from our scale. Second, the Play Observation Scale was designed to be used during free play sessions where children self-initiate behaviors. However, intergenerational researchers have repeatedly emphasized the need for structure to optimize IGP (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Jarrott, 2006; Xaverius Matthews, 2003), and so we developed the scale with planned IGP in mind. Finally, we expanded the IOS to distinguish between social behaviors with age peers and intergenerational partners (i.e., interactive peer versus interactive intergenerational). The first phase of the study involved qualitative observations of IGP conducted at a shared site intergenerational program serving frail elders and pre-school age children. The observations were then used to modify Rubins Play Observation Scale for use in a structured intergenerational setting. Phase two involved piloting the scale with two observers coding video of IGP and working with the second author to reach consensus and create a master coding scheme for the video sessions. In phase three, the scale was further modified and tested with a larger group of four observers coding video and live IGP. The current paper describes the three phases of the development and initial validation of the Intergenerational Observation Scale (IOS). While the IOS captures both behavior and affect of targeted child and elderly participants, the current paper focuses on social behaviors, which comprise the more complex sub-scale of the instrument. Method Participants Virginia Techs Neighbors Growing Together, is a shared site intergenerational program designed to improve the lives of people across the lifespan through intergenerational collaboration involving teaching, research, and outreach. Neighbors Growing Together includes two co-located programs: Adult Day Services and the Child Development Center for Learning and Research. Adult Day Services provides activities, care, and supervision daily to approximately 15 adults (50+ years old) with cognitive and/or physical impairments. The Child Development Center provides year-round, full-day care for 41 children ages 15 months to 5 years. Through daily programming designed to nurture development, enhance competencies, and facilitate positive social interactions between the generations, Neighbors Growing Together provides high quality services to children, older adults, and their families. Children from each of three classrooms have one to two weekly opportunities to join their elderly â€Å"neig hbors† for IGP, which typically involves three children and three older adults in a variety of activities, such as gardening, art, or sensory projects. Children and adults work together in a group facilitated by staff and students from the Child Development Center and Adult Day Services. Staff partners plan and implement activities that support an overarching goal of positive interactions. Activities further target developmental goals for both generations, such as fine motor skills or cooperation. Children and adults meet in a shared space adjoining the two programs. Child- and adult-sized chairs designed to put all participants at eye level and developmentally appropriate books and art materials are provided. Procedures Phase 1: Scale development In fall 2005, four research students gathered qualitative observations of IGP involving Adult Day Services participants and Child Development Center children. Observers attended different intergenerational sessions. Each week, observers had a distinct focus, starting with holistic observation to orient the observers to the setting and proceeding to target the environment, the participants, and the facilitators. Following their weekly observations, the observers and the first and second authors discussed the observational data, focusing on the interactions between participating children and elders and factors that influenced those interactions. After observing 3-5 intergenerational sessions apiece, observers read and reviewed the IOS scale and codebook developed by Gladwell and Jarrott (2003) and closely mirroring the Play Observation Scale developed by Rubin (2001). They discussed how well the categories applied to the intergenerational context they observed and how to modify the s cale to reflect the social behaviors critical to intergenerational interactions in planned activities. Through an iterative process, the first two authors used observers notes and conversations to modify the Play Observation Scale to capture data reflecting the interactive process of IGP. Based on the observations from Phase 1, we further developed and refined the IOS (see Table 1). The scale builds on earlier observational research (Rubin, 2001) by coding participants behavior and affect and the affect of intergenerational partners with whom a target participant interacts.   The IOS was developed for live coding. It captures observations for the duration of an intergenerational activity, which tends to last 15-30 minutes. Each observer identifies 4-5 participants for observation and watches them for 1-2 minutes to become familiar with the participants behaviors before beginning to record data. He or she codes a participant for one 15-second interval, then codes the next pa rticipant for 15 seconds, followed by the third participant, etc. After the last participant is coded, the observer cycles back to begin observing participant one again. All observers in a session start coding when the facilitators begin the activity and end when the activity completes. When coding, if a behavior occurs for the majority of the coding interval, it is coded as the predominant behavior. When multiple behaviors are observed for equal intervals during a 15-second coding episode, we use the following hierarchy to code the predominant behavior most indicative of intergenerational interactions: Interactive Intergenerational, Parallel Intergenerational, Interactive Peer, Parallel Peer, Staff, Watching, Solitary, and Unoccupied. Phase 2: Establishment of reliability Video coding of the observations was introduced during Phase 2 of scale development because learning the IOS through the use of video has several advantages. When first learning the scale, observers watched a 15-second interval repeatedly to better understand the IOS behavioral scoring. The video coding procedure allowed observers to review their coding with the second author, who is experienced in observational coding. Weekly meetings were held during which observers coding was reviewed and discussed until observers reached a consensus on what behaviors constituted the IOS categories. Weekly review helped observers achieve acceptable reliability in assigning predominant codes to participants social behaviors. The video procedure enabled us to refine the IOS manual. The video coding process began with two observers who both had experience with live coding during IGP. After studying the manual, observers filmed three weekly sessions of planned IGP between the elders and each of the three classrooms of children (one session per classroom per week). The procedure for using video to establish acceptable reliability was completed in three steps. First, observers independently coded sessions in 15-second intervals and re-watched these as many times as necessary to determine the predominant social behavior. In the second step, observers more closely approximated live coding by watching the 15-second intervals on video only once to code the predominant social behavior.   In the third step, observers coded live sessions (scoring participant behaviors individually but observing the same participants at the same intervals) and filmed the activities, which allowed observers to review their coding at the weekly meetings and resolve discrepancies. Based on the consensus between the two coders and the expert coder, master coding sheets were developed indicating agreement on the predominant behavior for each 15-second interval of the coded sessions. Before ob servers could proceed to the next step in the training process, they had to achieve acceptable inter-rater reliability measured by Cohens kappa. A kappa score of .60 or higher was considered acceptable (Cohen, 1960). The kappa scores for the two observers in Phase 2 were .67 for the first step, .85 for the second step, and .81 for the live coding in the third step. Replication of reliability In Phase 3, we used the IOS video coding procedure to train four new observers. In addition to establishing that the video coding procedure would work with observers new to the IOS, we wanted to determine the amount of training necessary to achieve acceptable reliability with our 3-step process. The observers started with an introductory period where they read the manual and watched live IGP to observe the range of behaviors common to IGP. Observers attended weekly meetings where they watched IGP videos and received instruction on using the IOS. The introductory period lasted approximately 3 weeks or until observers felt comfortable with the coding, which was an additional 2 weeks for one of the observers. After the introductory period, the observers started on step 1 in the video coding procedure. Each step lasted approximately 4 weeks. At the weekly coding meetings, observers reviewed any discrepancies between their coding and the master codes determined in Phase 2. Once t he observers achieved acceptable reliability in step 1, they moved on to step 2. Coding pairs were formed, and they coded live IGP during step 3, achieving acceptable kappas of .92, .69, and .75. Discussion In the current paper, we discuss the development of the IOS, a scale designed to measure young and old participants social interaction and affect during IGP.   In developing the IOS, we began with qualitative observations of IGP to refine a well-established child development observational scale (Rubin, 2001). We modified the scale for observations of elder and child participants in a typical range of intergenerational programs.   Based on two groups of observers, we present a system for training individuals to use the scale and establish inter-rater reliability.   Currently, the use of standardized measure within the field of IGP research is extremely limited, and our goal is to develop a scale to address this need. The IOS addresses several of Kuehnes (2003) recommendations for advancing   intergenerational research and evaluation.   First, the IOS is grounded in theory that shaped our view of positive IGP outcomes. Personhood theory (Kitwood Bredin, 1992) leads us to intergenerational relationships as a once common source of positive social interaction for many elders that can continue to support their well-being in late life. Contact theory (Allport, 1954; Pettigrew Tropp, 2000) elucidates necessary conditions for positive intergroup exchange, such as that between youth and elders. The conditions of cooperation and shared goals inform our expectation that the central mechanism of effective IGP is positive intergenerational interactions. The IOS captures the level of interactive behaviors between generations, thus reflecting the presence or absence of cooperation and shared goals of participants. Second, we draw from standardized measures of social interaction, namely the work of Parten (1933) and Rubin (2001).   Working from their concepts, we qualitatively looked at the behaviors seen during IGP.   We then refined the social behaviors described within Rubins scale to fit an intergenerational population and to capture levels o f social engagement or interaction during IGP.   Third, we steer away from the over-reliance on attitudinal measures, moving instead to behavioral and affective outcomes of IGP. Fourth, by taking steps to develop a standardized scale, we contribute to the research tools available to IGP researchers, which increases the capacity to compare outcomes across studies, thus advancing the collective understanding of IGP. Our results establish the IOS as a replicable measure of social interactions during IGP.   The three-step process we used to achieve acceptable inter-rater reliability proved effective with two groups of observers. The process allows observers to develop a thorough understanding of the social behaviors in the IOS. Observers coding is checked against the master coding scheme to insure observers accuracy coding observed behaviors.   The master coding scheme allows for faster, more accurate training on the use of the IOS. Now that we have developed a successful p rocess for training observers to use the IOS and achieve acceptable inter-rater, observers could be trained relatively quickly, most likely within four to eight weeks. A reliable, quick training method will allow data collection to begin at an earlier date and will allow more researchers to use the scale with confidence. An important strength of the IOS is its utility with both generations of IGP participants. Most research on individual outcomes of IGP participation focuses on one generation or the other (e.g., Middlecamp Gross 2002), neglecting the experiences of the other generation. When researchers do evaluate both age groups, they typically use non-parallel measures because parallel scales for disparate age groups rarely exist.   Not only will the IOS allow for standardized data collection across sites; it enables standardized data collection across generations. We expect the IOS to yield valuable process and outcome data for practitioners and researchers. Con sidering first the IOS as a source of outcome data, a program introducing or modifying an IGP could, for example, use IOS data to determine the affect and social behavior of participants during IGP with a goal of achieving high levels of positive affect, increasing intergenerational interaction, and reducing inactivity. In regards to process data, the IOS can be used in conjunction with salient outcome measures (e.g., depression or attitudes towards aging) to help interpret the effects of IGP (another recommendation by Kuehne, 2003). In asserting that IGP positively affects (or does not affect) targeted outcomes, researchers analyses would be strengthened by including data on the level of intergenerational interaction and affect that transpired among participants. For example, Seefeldt (1987) reported that children who participated in regular intergenerational visits to a nursing home had worse attitudes about aging than children who did not.   These findings would have been more easily interpreted if they incorporated process data such as the affect and level of interaction between children and elders.   Because these data were not included in the analyses, readers are left to speculate whether all IGP involving nursing home residents would negatively affect childrens attitudes or if the nature of the IGP in that study contributed to the negative outcomes. Seefeldt described IGP that yielded little support for intergenerational interaction (i.e., children performing in the center of the room, surrounded by the elders). She also indicated that elders were largely non-responsive to the children, suggesting that the negative outcomes may have been due to the nature of the IGP. While IGP professionals advocate standards of IGP practice (Epstein Boisvert, 2006; Rosebrook Larkin, 2003), significant variability on dimensions of IGP likely affects targeted outcomes and should be assessed. By capturing data that reflect the process of connecting generations, the IOS promotes understanding of why IGP succeeds or fails. As outlined above, the IOS provides many benefits for IGP research and evaluation. Our next step in establishing the scales value and utility to the intergenerational field entails establishing the reliability for coding occurrence of behaviors and predominance and occurrence of affect. Second, we plan to use a variety of means to establish validity, including video training to address substantive validity, expert panels to assess content validity, and statistical modeling of IOS data and related measures to determine convergent or divergent validity. Third, the scale was developed within the Neighbors Growing Together shared site intergenerational program, which involves structured programming between preschoolers and frail older adults. Generalizability is a critical indicator of validity and depends on the scales utility across intergenerational sites, populations, and programmatic approaches. Fourth, the behavior c ategory codes are developmentally salient for pre-school age children and frail elders; we need to determine if the categories will be equally informative when applied to older children and well elders. Finally, the scale should be tested across cultures to support Kuehnes (2003) recommendation to take a more global view of IGP innovation. Initial indicators reveal that the IOS could become a useful tool to researchers and practitioners alike. As they seek to develop, improve, and sustain IGP while linking programming data to instrumental outcomes of interest to practitioners and funders, the availability of a standardized scale appropriate for use with young and old will prove invaluable. At a time characterized by tremendous creative energy and innovation in the intergenerational field, the IOS can capture the essence of IGP as practitioners support meaningful outcomes through intergenerational relationships. References Allen-Burge, R., Burgio, L. D., Bourgeois, M. S., Sims, R., Nunnikhoven, J. (2001). Increasing communication among nursing home residents.   Journal of Clinical Geropsychology, 7, 213-230. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Camp, C. J., Judge, K. S., Bye, C. A., Fox, K. M., Bowden, J., Bell, M., et al.. (1997). An intergenerational program for persons with dementia using Montessori methods. The Gerontologist, 37, 688-692. Cohen, J. (1960). 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Parallel Peer To engage in a similar activity beside (but not with) program peers, while acknowledging peers. Staff Interactive or parallel behavior with a staff member from either program w/o peer or intergenerational behavior. Watching To watch (or listen to) the activities of others. Solitary To engage in an activity alone without acknowledgment of or interaction with others. Unoccupied Lack of goal or focus, includes repetitive, self-stimulating behavior.